1. Dialectic of Enlightenment (chapters "The Concept of Enlightenment" and "The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception").
a. What is "Enlightenment"?
As always is it good to have the dictionary definition of the word which in this case is according to the Oxford dictionaries: “A European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition [...].”
As always is it good to have the dictionary definition of the word which in this case is according to the Oxford dictionaries: “A European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition [...].”
In the chapter “The Concept of Enlightenment” we are to understand the importance and value of technology, and that through the way of enlightenment we can have more knowledge, but at the same time be free from traditions. Enlightened humans’ reason are believed to be able to answer questions that the authority before had answers to.
Enlightenment is there to free humans from fear, and to exchange and dispel myths and fantasy with knowledge instead. Those thing which cannot be explained by technology or numbers, such as fantasy, is therefore an illusion. With the Enlightenment humans should be free of fear since there is no longer anything unknown. I think this is a bit weird, since everything “unknown” is classed as an “illusion”...
b. What is "dialectic"?
In the same way, I start by the definition from Oxford Dictionaries:
1: “The art of investigating or discussing the truth of opinions.”
2: “Enquiry into metaphysical contradictions and their solutions.”
In the chapter “Concept of Enlightenment” it says “dialectical thinking, in which each thing is what it is only by becoming what it is not”. It is a bit difficult to grasp but I believe it means that you investigate different opinions and try to realise which are not true, thereafter with the help of reason and the exclusion method one can come a bit closer to the truth.
2: “Enquiry into metaphysical contradictions and their solutions.”
In the chapter “Concept of Enlightenment” it says “dialectical thinking, in which each thing is what it is only by becoming what it is not”. It is a bit difficult to grasp but I believe it means that you investigate different opinions and try to realise which are not true, thereafter with the help of reason and the exclusion method one can come a bit closer to the truth.
c. What is "nominalism" and why is it an important concept in the text?
According to Oxford Dictionaries:
“The doctrine that universals or general ideas are mere names without any corresponding reality. Only particular objects exist, and properties, numbers, and sets are merely features of the way of considering the things that exist.”
“The doctrine that universals or general ideas are mere names without any corresponding reality. Only particular objects exist, and properties, numbers, and sets are merely features of the way of considering the things that exist.”
With this definition I think it is seems to be a concept which supports the Enlightenment. For example it dispels myths and fantasies in the same way that Enlightenment does, and it encourages the use of knowledge instead.
d. What is the meaning and function of "myth" in Adorno and Horkheimer's argument?
Myths are untruths and illusions and I believe that Adorno and Horkheimer use it to support the Enlightenment and to show why the Enlightenment is so important - to eliminate untruths that causes fear.
Myths are untruths and illusions and I believe that Adorno and Horkheimer use it to support the Enlightenment and to show why the Enlightenment is so important - to eliminate untruths that causes fear.
2. "The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity"
a. In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin talks about the relation between "superstructure" and "substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What do the concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist perspective?
a. In the beginning of the essay, Benjamin talks about the relation between "superstructure" and "substructure" in the capitalist order of production. What do the concepts "superstructure" and "substructure" mean in this context and what is the point of analyzing cultural production from a Marxist perspective?
Superstructure changes much more slowly than substructure. And substructure can be seen as general production and superstructure as the production of culture. Hence, culture is changing slower than the means of which to produce them. In a Marxist perspective it is the production, the substructure which defines society and the future to come. If a country has good production it will enhance the superstructure and vice versa.
b. Does culture have revolutionary potentials (according to Benjamin)? If so, describe these potentials. Does Benjamin's perspective differ from the perspective of Adorno & Horkheimer in this regard?
Benjamin talks about photography as a revolution of reproduction which created the idea of pure art that should not have any social function. Photography, mechanical production separates the work of art from it’s aura. He writes about the example of having the “authentic” photo, which is no use since a photography can have a lot of prints from its negative. Therefor, photos is not pure art and doesn’t have any aura.
Benjamin talks about photography as a revolution of reproduction which created the idea of pure art that should not have any social function. Photography, mechanical production separates the work of art from it’s aura. He writes about the example of having the “authentic” photo, which is no use since a photography can have a lot of prints from its negative. Therefor, photos is not pure art and doesn’t have any aura.
This could be compared to Enlightenment where science and technology is highly valued, and therefore this sort of reproduction of “art” would be appreciated. Whereas Benjamin does not seem to embrace this “revolution” when it comes to calling it art.
The revolutionary potentials are depending on the substructure, that is the means of production (which is connected to technology). So if technology can be revolutionised so can culture.
c. Benjamin discusses how people perceive the world through the senses and argues that this perception can be both naturally and historically determined. What does this mean? Give some examples of historically determined perception (from Benjamin's essay and/or other contexts).
Benjamin writes that over a long period of time perception changes with the whole existence of humanity. But it is not only directed in this way but can also be changed by history. His example is about Roman art and how it changed how the Romans perceived art. However, perception is not only about art but also about how humanity sees the surrounding world; living standards, laws, norms etc.
Benjamin writes that over a long period of time perception changes with the whole existence of humanity. But it is not only directed in this way but can also be changed by history. His example is about Roman art and how it changed how the Romans perceived art. However, perception is not only about art but also about how humanity sees the surrounding world; living standards, laws, norms etc.
d. What does Benjamin mean by the term "aura"? Are there different kinds of aura in natural objects compared to art objects?
Benjamin claims the concept of aura of being the “unique phenomenon of a distance, however close it may be”. This seemed to me to be a bit distract, but Benjamin illustrates this with references to the aura of natural things. He gives us the example of following with your eyes a “a branch which casts its shadow over you” - in that moment we feel the aura of branch.
When it comes to art Benjamin refers to a statue of Venus which which uniqueness could be experienced - that is the statues aura. However for art to have aura it needs to be an authentic work of art. I believe that he means that all natural things have an aura - but not all art only “true” art.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/enlightenment
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/dialectic
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/nominalism
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